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**Heat engine** absorbs Q_h from hot reservoir T_h, does work W, rejects Q_c to cold T_c, efficiency η = W/Q_h =1 - Q_c/Q_h, second law limits η
Ref: NCERT > Physics Book > Thermodynamics > Second Law Heat Engines and Kelvin-Planck
**Isobaric and isothermal** are fundamental thermodynamic processes, isobaric P constant horizontal line on P-V diagram, isothermal hyperbolic P = n R T/V, work equals area under curve, isothermal work larger than adiabatic for same volume change because pressure higher. Heat ( Δ Q ) is energy in transit due to a temperature difference, not a property of the system, while internal energy ( U ) is a state variable representing the total energy of the system's molecules. Heat is a process quantity; internal energy is a stored quantity. Using first law ΔU = Q - W, W = ∫ P dV, isobaric W = P
Ref: NCERT > Physics Book > Thermodynamics > Isobaric and Isothermal Processes Work Calculation
The negative sign indicates that gravitational potential energy is zero at infinite separation (r→∞) and decreases (becomes more negative) as objects approach each other. It reflects the attractive nature of gravity, where work must be done to separate masses.
Ref: Halliday & Resnick, Fundamentals of Physics, 11th ed., Chapter 13: Gravitation.
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