118 public questions tagged with this topic.
Peptidyl transferase is an enzyme that catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids during translation. This follows from NCERT principle where the relation explains the outcome clearly for students in simple steps.
Ref: NCERT Biology Textbook for Class XI and XII (Botany section), Chapter: Morphology and Anatomy of Flowering Plants, Topic: Plant structure and tissue systems.
Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase catalyzes the attachment of an amino acid to its corresponding tRNA. This follows from latest NCERT 2026-27 principle explaining the concept clearly for NEET students in simple steps as per rationalized syllabus.
Ref: NCERT Biology Textbook - Latest Edition for Academic Session 2026-27 (Botany section, Rationalized Textbook for Class XI and XII), Chapter: Biology - Botany portion (Latest NCERT Textbooks for Academic Session 2026-27 -
Translation does **not** produce **DNA from RNA**; it converts **mRNA into protein**. This follows from NCERT principle where relation explains outcome clearly for students.
Ref: NCERT Biology Textbook for Class XI and XII (Botany section), Chapter: Biology - Botany portion covering relevant concept, Topic: Plant structure, physiology and applications.
tRNA is synthesized by RNA polymerase III, not RNA polymerase II. This follows from NCERT principle where the relation explains the outcome clearly for students in simple steps.
Ref: NCERT Biology Textbook for Class XI and XII (Botany section), Chapter: Morphology and Anatomy of Flowering Plants, Topic: Plant structure and tissue systems.
AUG is the start codon, coding for methionine, and serves as the initiation signal for translation. This follows from latest NCERT 2026-27 principle explaining the concept clearly for NEET students in simple steps as per rationalized syllabus.
Ref: NCERT Biology Textbook - Latest Edition for Academic Session 2026-27 (Botany section, Rationalized Textbook for Class XI and XII), Chapter: Biology - Botany portion (Latest NCERT Textbooks for Academic Session 2026-27 -
Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the genetic code from DNA to ribosomes during protein synthesis.
Ref: NCERT Class 12 Chemistry > Chapter 14: Biomolecules > Topic: Nucleic Acids - Types and Functions - DNA, RNA
Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries specific amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis.
Ref: NCERT Class 12 Chemistry > Chapter 14: Biomolecules > Topic: Nucleic Acids - Types and Functions - DNA, RNA
Messenger RNA vaccines represent nucleic acid platform delivering synthetic mRNA encoding pathogen antigen directly to host cytoplasm where host ribosomal machinery translates it transiently. Manufacturing involves in vitro transcription using T7 RNA polymerase from linearized plasmid DNA template encoding spike protein, incorporation of modified nucleoside N1 methylpseudouridine replacing uridine reducing TLR7 mediated inflammation and increasing translation half-life, addition of 5' cap 7-methylguanosine via vaccinia capping enzyme and 2'O-methylation, and 3' polyadenine tail 100 nt for stab
Ref: Pardi et al. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2018 mRNA mechanism; Polack NEJM mRNA; CDC mRNA work.
Prokaryotic translation machinery centers on 70S ribosome sedimenting at 70 Svedberg units, approximately 2.5 MDa particle comprising small 30S subunit containing 16S rRNA about 1542 nucleotides and 21 ribosomal proteins responsible for decoding mRNA via Shine-Dalgarno interaction pairing with anti-Shine-Dalgarno near 3 prime end of 16S, and large 50S subunit containing 23S rRNA 2900 nucleotides, 5S rRNA, and 33 proteins harboring peptidyl transferase center catalyzing peptide bond formation and exit tunnel guiding nascent chain. Initiation uses initiation factors IF1, IF2, IF3 and formyl-meth
Ref: Alberts et al., Molecular Biology of the Cell, 7th ed., Chapter 6: 70S Bacterial Ribosomes and Antibiotics.
Protein sorting depends on presence of N-terminal signal sequence or internal transmembrane domain. Secretory proteins like insulin, lysosomal cathepsins, plasma membrane receptors and Golgi glycosyltransferases harbor hydrophobic signals recognized by signal recognition particle leading to Sec61 engagement and translocation into ER lumen or membrane, then onward transport, removed from cytosol. Absence of signal leaves nascent chain completing synthesis on free ribosomes in cytoplasm where folding by Hsp70 and TRiC chaperonin occurs. Cytoskeletal proteins actin forty three kDa forming seven n
Ref: Blobel Nobel Lecture; signal sequence free vs membrane-bound polysomes actin spectrin cytosolic.
Endosymbiosis is supported by mitochondrial translation apparatus resembling bacteria. Mitochondrial ribosomes, mitoribosomes, in mammals sediment as fifty five S composed of twenty eight S small and thirty nine S large subunits, total mass two point seven megadaltons, containing two rRNAs and about eighty two proteins where only thirty percent homologous to bacterial proteins and rest mitochondria-specific adaptations for membrane protein synthesis. They retain bacterial features such as leaderless initiation, formylmethionine start, lack of five prime cap, and sensitivity to tetracycline, ch
Ref: Gray Annu Rev Genet; mitochondria endosymbiont mitoribosome 55S homologous to bacterial 70S.
Eukaryotic ribosome biogenesis is highly compartmentalized energy intensive process. Initiation occurs in nucleolus where RNA polymerase I synthesizes forty seven S precursor containing eighteen S, five point eight S, twenty eight S rRNAs, processed by small nucleolar ribonucleoproteins catalyzing cleavages, methylations and pseudouridylations concurrent with association of imported ribosomal proteins. Resulting pre-forty S and pre-sixty S particles undergo remodeling by assembly factors such as Nob1, Rio2, Rix1 in nucleoplasm ensuring correct folding. These immature subunits are exported thro
Ref: Thomson Annu Rev Biochem; ribosome biogenesis nucleolus export pre-subunits CRM1 cytoplasmic maturation.
