Practice question

**Flux definition** Φ = ∮ E·dA links field to area orientation. For uniform E perpendicular to surface, Φ = E A, with A = πr² for circle. Inclination reduces flux by cosθ factor, sign indicating outward or inward crossing. Gauss’s law states that the electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the net charge enclosed, regardless of its position or distribution inside. External charges do not contribute to the net flux due to the inverse-square nature of the field. Substituting values gives Gauss’s law, which matches expected magnitude for this electrostatic configuration, confirming Coulomb's and Gauss's principles and charge quantization consistency.