Practice question

**Gauss's theorem** states total flux through closed surface equals enclosed charge divided by free-space permittivity, Φ_total = q_enc/ε₀, ε₀ = 8.854×10⁻¹² C²/(N·m²). Result independent of shape or size, depends only on net enclosed charge, enabling charge determination from flux. Gauss’s law applies to any closed surface: if no charge is enclosed within the shell, the net flux through a Gaussian surface inside is zero. For a conductor, charges reside on the outer surface, ensuring no field inside, regardless of shape. Substituting values gives No enclosed charge, which matches expected magnitude for this electrostatic configuration, confirming Coulomb's and Gauss's principles and charge quantization consistency.