Escape response in tadpoles is influenced by:
Tadpole antipredator behavior can be shaped by both personal experience and social learning. After exposure to predator odor paired with alarm cues from injured conspecifics, a tadpole may learn that the odor predicts danger and later show stronger refuge use, freezing, or escape. Naïve individuals can also acquire information by observing the responses of older or experienced group members or by detecting their chemical alarm signals. Social transmission is especially useful when direct sampling could be lethal, while prior exposure calibrates the reliability of environmental cues. Temperature and food availability can certainly alter activity and energetic trade-offs, but they do not capture the learning mechanism emphasized. Older individuals alone are not sufficient as a general explanation; what matters is the information their behavior or cues convey and the learner’s experience. The response is phenotypically plastic, allowing prey to balance the survival benefit of vigilance against costs such as reduced feeding and growth. Experimental designs separate these effects by independently manipulating cue exposure and social companions.
Ref: Ecology: Concepts and Applications, Molles, 9th Ed., Ch. 14