Which of the following includes plant, insect herbivore, and parasitoid in interaction?
A plant, an insect herbivore, and the herbivore's parasitoid occupy three linked feeding levels, forming a tritrophic interaction. Plant chemistry and structure influence herbivore performance, and those changes can affect parasitoid host location or development. Damaged plants may release volatile compounds that attract parasitoids, creating an indirect defense, while parasitoid suppression of herbivores can indirectly improve plant fitness. This framework therefore includes both direct consumption and indirect effects across trophic levels. Commensalism is only a two-species outcome category
Ref: Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems, Begon et al., 5th Ed., Ch. 8-13