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In aquatic ecosystems, the pyramid of biomass is often inverted because zooplankton have a higher biomass than phytoplankton.
Ref: NCERT Class 12 Biology Chapter 12: Ecosystem Ecological Pyramids - Number Biomass Energy
The tolerance model allows early and late successional species to arrive independently; pioneers neither strongly facilitate nor inhibit later colonists. Species that tolerate lower resource levels or other conditions developing over time eventually persist and grow better, so their life-history traits drive replacement. A disturbance changes the availability of space, resources, and biological legacies, creating opportunities for colonization. Whether succession is primary or secondary depends chiefly on the starting substrate and survival of soil, not simply on the identity of the disturbanc
Ref: Ecology: Concepts and Applications, Molles, 9th Ed., Ch. 20
The classical facilitation model proposes that early colonists modify a harsh environment in ways that improve establishment by later species. Soil stabilization, organic-matter accumulation, nitrogen fixation, and shelter from physical stress can make pioneers necessary precursors even though successors may eventually replace them. Organisms can drive succession autogenically by changing their own habitat, while floods, erosion, sedimentation, or climate can drive allogenic change. Biological agents such as grazers and pathogens may also redirect succession by altering competitive relationshi
Ref: Ecology: Concepts and Applications, Molles, 9th Ed., Ch. 20
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